Wilderness and Forest Cover in Panama:
How Much Wild Land Remains?

Overview of Panama’s Forest Cover and Wilderness

Panama remains one of the most forested countries in Central America, with roughly 60–70% of its land area still under forest cover^[1][2]. This equates to about 5 million hectares of forest, of which the vast majority is natural forest and less than 1% consists of tree plantations (such as teak, pine, or oil palm)^[1]. Importantly, about half of Panama’s forests are considered primary (old-growth) forest, while the other half are secondary growth or regenerating forests. In 2001, for example, Panama had ~2.9 million hectares of primary rainforest (≈39% of the country’s area) and only about 2.7% of that primary cover was lost by 2020. By 2020, primary forests still covered ~2.82 million hectares (≈38% of Panama) – roughly half of all tree cover in the country^[3]. The remaining forest cover is a mosaic of secondary forests, woodlands and regenerating “stubble” areas. According to Panama’s Ministry of Environment, secondary regrowth (locally called rastrojo, or stubble fields in regeneration) now accounts for ~6.5% of national land area, reflecting recent recovery of forest on abandoned lands^[2].

Panama’s high forest cover stands out in the region. In fact, Panama now boasts the largest proportion of forest cover among all Central American countries, even more than eco-friendly Costa Rica. This extensive tree cover helps Panama remain one of only three carbon-negative countries worldwide, meaning its forests absorb more CO₂ than the nation emits^[2]. Much of this remaining wilderness is natural forest – as of 2020, about 62% of Panama’s land was natural forest, versus only ~0.6% in tree plantations. Planted forests (≈79,000 ha) are relatively minor and consist mainly of exotic species like teak and Caribbean pine grown for timber^[1]. The overwhelmingly native character of Panama’s forests contributes to their high biodiversity.

Encouragingly, recent trends indicate that Panama’s deforestation rate has slowed. In the 1990s Panama was losing forest at over 1% per year (≈42,000 ha annually), but by the 2000s this fell below 1% (around 27,000 ha per year)^[1]. Government data show a further reduction in the last decade: annual forest loss declined from ~11,415 ha to about 3,014 ha in 2021, a dramatic improvement. This positive trend is attributed to stronger conservation policies, reforestation programs, and better monitoring and enforcement (including a temporary ban on new logging permits and prosecution of environmental crimes). If these measures are sustained, Panama may continue to maintain – or even gradually increase – its forest cover over the next two decades. In fact, the official forest cover maps showed an increase from 65% to 68% forest cover between 2019 and 2021, suggesting net reforestation in some areas^[2]. However, independent satellite analyses (e.g. Global Forest Watch) still recorded some tree cover loss of ~17,000 ha in 2024 alone^[4], reminding that deforestation pressures have not vanished entirely. Ongoing vigilance is needed to ensure that Panama’s recent gains in forest conservation are not reversed.

Despite Panama's majority forest cover, this fact is easily overlooked by visitors because Panama is a country of extremes when it comes to forest distribution. Nearly all of the Pacific slope—home to most of the country’s highways, towns, and agricultural areas—has been heavily deforested over the past century. Travelers driving from Panama City toward David or the Azuero Peninsula see rolling pastures, bare hillsides, and expanding urban zones, creating the illusion of a landscape stripped of trees. By contrast, the Caribbean slope tells a very different story. Much of northern Panama remains covered in continuous tropical rainforest, with large tracts of intact canopy stretching from the Chagres and Santa Fe regions through Bocas del Toro and into the vast wilderness of Darién in the southeast. These regions are sparsely populated, largely roadless, and accessible only by boat or on foot, making them invisible to most travelers. The Darién Gap, in particular, forms one of the last unbroken stretches of lowland rainforest in Central America—a place where highways end and wilderness begins. Thus, while a casual visitor might be forgiven for thinking Panama has been almost entirely clear-cut, the reality is that a significant portion of the nation’s land remains wild

Primary Forest Strongholds vs. Fragmented Habitats

Not all of Panama’s forests are equal in terms of ecological integrity. A key distinction is between the large contiguous blocks of primary forest – which sustain near-intact ecosystems – and smaller or degraded forest fragments. The largest wilderness blocks are mainly found on the Caribbean side of the country and in the Darién region. Panama’s Darién region, bordering Colombia, alone contains over 41% of the country’s mature natural forests^[1]. This region, which includes the famous Darién National Park (579,000 ha) and indigenous-managed forests, is a vast, contiguous swath of lowland and montane rainforest. It remains so wild and roadless that it forms the notorious “Darién Gap” – the only break in the Pan-American Highway. The Darién forests are among the most biodiverse areas on Earth and provide refuge for large fauna like jaguars, Baird’s tapirs, white-lipped peccaries, harpy eagles and countless other species.

The other major stronghold of primary wilderness is in the far northwest along the Caribbean slope, especially in and around La Amistad International Park. La Amistad is a transboundary park shared with Costa Rica, forming part of a massive forested cordillera (mountain range) that runs along Panama’s border. Together with adjacent reserves (like Palo Seco, Fortuna Forest Reserve, and the Mount Totumas cloud forest reserve in Panama, and reserves in Costa Rica), it protects extensive cloud forests and Atlantic slope rainforests. A recent ecological study noted that only two regions in Panama still host the full assemblage of large mammals: Darién in the south, and La Amistad in the north. These are the country’s last truly “healthy” wilderness areas where all the iconic fauna (jaguars, pumas, tapirs, anteaters, peccaries, etc.) still survive in viable populations^[5]. Not coincidentally, these two areas represent the largest continuous forest blocks remaining.

By contrast, central Panama has experienced much heavier deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The Pacific side of Panama is largely deforested, and the central isthmus around the Panama Canal and major cities is a patchwork of farms, cattle pastures, and settlements with only isolated forest patches. Historically, most human population and agriculture concentrated on the Pacific coastal plains and foothills (which have more fertile soils and a less rain-soaked climate). Meanwhile, the Caribbean (Atlantic) side of the isthmus has higher rainfall, rugged terrain, and was less accessible, so it retained dense rainforest cover longer. Over the 20th century, logging and cattle ranching expanded into the interior and Atlantic lowlands, but even today the Atlantic half of Panama holds most of the remaining forest^[6]. The result is a stark divide: the Pacific slope is now dominated by human-altered landscapes, while the Caribbean slope still contains a broad band of forest stretching from Costa Rica to (almost) Colombia.

However, that Atlantic forest band is no longer unbroken – there are critical gaps where the forest is fragmented, threatening the connectivity of Panama’s wilderness. In particular, central Colon and Panama Provinces, roughly around the Panama Canal watershed, form a narrow bottleneck where forests have been heavily cleared or urbanized, breaking the continuity of the Caribbean-side corridor. Two major highways and associated development connecting Panama City (Pacific) with Colon (Atlantic) cut across this area, creating barriers to wildlife movement. Outside of a few protected areas (like Soberanía and Chagres National Parks which protect parts of the Canal’s watershed), the central region’s forests exist mostly as small “islands” surrounded by cattle ranches, croplands, and towns. Large mammals that once roamed throughout this isthmus are now isolated in the north or south. Ecologists report that species such as tapirs and white-lipped peccaries have almost completely disappeared from central Panama, surviving only in refuges like Barro Colorado Island (a reserve in Gatún Lake) but not in the broader landscape. Even jaguars and pumas, which are more adaptable, are experiencing reduced gene flow due to the fragmentation. A 2019 study surveying nine large mammal species across Panama found that “the bridge [through Panama] is broken” – the once-continuous land corridor for wildlife between North and South America has been severely compromised by habitat loss in Panama^[6]. Animals are now effectively marooned in disconnected forest blocks, imperiling their long-term viability.

Key Wilderness Areas and “Missing Links”

To understand Panama’s current wilderness, it’s helpful to identify the major contiguous forest blocks and the “missing links” between them:

• Darién Forest Block (Southeast) – Location: Darién Province and the Comarca Emberá-Wounaan, extending to the Colombian border. Description: This is Panama’s largest intact rainforest, encompassing Darién National Park and surrounding indigenous territories. It’s part of the Chocó-Darién ecoregion that continues into Colombia’s Los Katíos National Park. The forest here is largely continuous and of high ecological integrity. It harbors all native fauna, including top predators and large herbivores. Health: Still relatively pristine, but threatened by encroaching deforestation along its edges (e.g. agricultural frontier advancing from the Pan-American Highway terminus at Yaviza) and by plans to possibly extend roads through the gap. Conservation status is strong (World Heritage Site, large protected core), but vigilance is needed against illegal logging, hunting, and potential highway construction^[6].
• Central Caribbean Corridor (North-Central Atlantic slope) – Location: Northern Veraguas, Colón, northeast Coclé provinces, and the Comarcas Ngäbe-Buglé and Guna Yala. This “corridor” historically would link the forests of western Panama (La Amistad) to eastern Panama (Darién) along the Caribbean side. Description: Portions of this corridor remain forested – for example, Santa Fé National Park in Veraguas connects to forest in the Ngäbe-Buglé highlands, and the Donoso Multiple-Use Forest and Portobelo National Park in Colón protect Atlantic forests further east. The Guna Yala comarca (indigenous territory) along the mid-Atlantic coast also retains significant forest cover in its interior. Health: Fragmented in parts. The critical gap is in central Colón/Panamá provinces, roughly around the Panama Canal area and eastward. Here the forest corridor is severed by agriculture and development outside a few parks. Notably, Chagres National Park (which safeguards the Canal’s water source) and Soberanía National Park (along the Canal) preserve some forest patches in this zone, but highways and settlements around them isolate these patches^[6]. The San Blas (Guna Yala) forests in the northeast are relatively intact (thanks to indigenous stewardship and lack of roads), but their connection to forests west of the Canal zone is tenuous. Overall, the Atlantic corridor is incomplete – a continuous forest belt from Costa Rica to Colombia does not yet exist.
• La Amistad and Western Highlands (Northwest) – Location: Bocas del Toro and Chiriquí provinces, along the border with Costa Rica. Description: This encompasses La Amistad International Park (a binational park straddling the Cordillera de Talamanca), plus Volcán Barú National Park and surrounding forest reserves. It includes cloud forests, montane rainforests, and foothill jungles that descend toward the Caribbean slope. These forests connect further east into the Ngäbe-Buglé comarca and buffer zones. Health: Largely intact in the highlands and protected cores (La Amistad is also a UNESCO World Heritage site). Lower elevations outside the park have seen deforestation for cattle and crops, but large swaths remain. This block is the key northern anchor of Panama’s wilderness and links to Costa Rica’s protected areas, enabling cross-border wildlife movement. All major fauna are present here^[5]. However, the protected forested sections in this region are mostly high elevation (cloud forest). While many animals species such as puma, jaguar, tapir, several monkey species, and many bird species occupy and can traverse the high elevation habitat, many species cannot. Many species, including most reptile and amphibian species live only in the low elevation rainforests and do not inhabit or traverse the high elevations.

In summary, Panama’s Caribbean side still hosts an impressive chain of forests from the Costa Rican border (La Amistad) through the Comarcas and down to Darién in the southeast, but the chain has weak links in central Panama. The Pacific side, conversely, has very little original forest left outside a few pockets (e.g. mangroves and small reserves). The stark contrast is rooted in climate and land use: the Pacific lowlands (leeward side of mountains) are drier and were more suitable for large-scale agriculture and ranching, hence were cleared early on^[6]. The Caribbean side’s wetter, rugged terrain made it less appealing for settlement until recent decades, allowing more forest to persist.

Ecological Importance and Benefits of Connectivity

Why does it matter that Panama’s forests be contiguous? Because Panama is the vital land bridge linking the biodiversity of North and Mesoamerica with that of South America. When the Isthmus of Panama rose 2.8 million years ago, it enabled the Great American Biotic Interchange – animals and plants crossed between the continents. To this day, Panama’s forests facilitate genetic exchange between these biotas. A continuous forest corridor from Costa Rica to Colombia would allow species such as jaguars, pumas, tapirs, monkeys, and birds to migrate, disperse, and interbreed across a huge swath of the tropics, strengthening their populations’ genetic health. Conservationists often talk of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC) – a regional initiative to maintain a forested corridor through all of Central America. Panama is the narrowest and most critical section of this corridor. If the chain is broken in Panama, it effectively blocks exchange between Central and South American wildlife. Unfortunately, current research indicates that is already happening: habitat fragmentation in Panama has disrupted gene flow and movement for many species, isolating them into smaller sub-populations. Species like the Baird’s tapir and white-lipped peccary, which need large undisturbed ranges, have been especially hard hit – they have vanished from fragmented central Panama and cannot recolonize without corridors^[5].

Reconnecting Panama’s forests would yield tremendous ecological benefits. It would create safe migratory routes and expand the effective habitat for wide-ranging animals. For example, jaguars from Costa Rica could repopulate areas in Panama and even disperse into northern Colombia’s Chocó forests, bolstering the genetic diversity of the species. Birds and insects would likewise have continuous habitat. Ecosystem processes – such as seed dispersal and pollination by wide-ranging animals – would be restored over larger areas. Moreover, larger contiguous forests are more resilient: they can support viable top-predator populations and intact food webs, and they are less vulnerable to edge effects like drying and invasive species. From a climate perspective, keeping the forest corridor intact also maximizes carbon storage and safeguards watershed services across the isthmus.

Recognizing this, scientists and conservation groups have called for ecological restoration in the central Panama corridor. The idea is to reforest key choke points (for example, creating biological corridors around the Panama Canal zone and in deforested valleys of Colon province) to bridge the gap between the big forest blocks. The good news is that Panama still has the opportunity to do this. Unlike many other countries, Panama has not completely lost its chance at connectivity – large forests are still there on both ends. Restoration of even a few tens of thousands of hectares in strategic locations could reconnect Atlantic forests across the isthmus. Studies suggest that if Panama “brings back the forests that have recently been lost,” it could greatly improve the functionality of the Mesoamerican Corridor. On the flip side, if current fragmentation continues or worsens, even adaptable species like pumas and deer (which for now can navigate the patchy landscape) would eventually lose connectivity and suffer genetically^[5].

In addition to formal protected areas, Panama’s indigenous territories are key allies in preserving wilderness. Indigenous comarcas (such as Guna Yala, Emberá-Wounaan, Ngäbe-Buglé) cover large forested regions and have lower deforestation rates than other lands. It’s notable that around 32% of Panama’s forests lie within indigenous district lands, where traditional stewardship has helped keep ecosystems intact^[2]. These areas often form the connective tissue between national parks. For example, the Guna Yala comarca’s forests link the Chagres National Park area to eastern Darién forests, and the Ngäbe-Buglé forests connect La Amistad down toward Santa Fé. Supporting indigenous land rights and sustainable practices is thus a crucial part of maintaining Panama’s wild corridor.

Meanwhile, about 43% of Panama’s remaining forests are under official protection (national parks, forest reserves, etc.), covering roughly 22% of the country’s area. Many of these protected areas are concentrated on the Caribbean side (hence the name Atlantic Biological Corridor for Panama’s MBC portion^[2]). Ensuring the enforcement and adequate funding of these protected areas is essential for the long-term “health” of the wilderness. In some cases, parks exist but lack connectivity between them – highlighting the need for buffer zones and biological corridors on privately owned or community lands between protected cores.

Pacific vs. Caribbean: Why the Contrast?

Panama’s Pacific slope versus Caribbean slope present a dramatic contrast in wilderness today. The Pacific side (south of the continental divide) is now dominated by agriculture, cattle pasture, towns, and Panama’s largest cities. In provinces like Los Santos, Herrera, Coclé, and parts of Veraguas on the Pacific, deforestation has been extensive – these areas were historically the cradle of Panama’s agrarian economy. Several factors explain this pattern:

• Climate and Soils: The Pacific side of Panama has a pronounced dry season and receives less annual rainfall (around 1,100–2,300 mm in Panama City) compared to the Caribbean side (often 3,000 mm or more)^[7]. It also has broader alluvial plains and fertile volcanic soils in places. These conditions made the Pacific lowlands and foothills attractive for farming and ranching since colonial times. By 1900, most of Panama’s population lived on the Pacific slope, cultivating its more arable land. In contrast, the Caribbean side is wetter, swampier in parts, and was historically ridden with diseases like malaria – factors that discouraged large-scale settlement until the mid-20th century. Thus, the Caribbean coast remained a forested “frontier” and a refuge for indigenous peoples much longer^[8].
• Accessibility: The Pacific side had early roads, railways (the Panama Railroad in the 1850s), and cities (Panamá Viejo and later Panama City) facilitating exploitation of resources. The Caribbean interior was relatively roadless (aside from around Colón and the Canal) until recent decades. Even today, some Caribbean-side forests (e.g. in Bocas del Toro or Guna Yala) are accessible only by boat or small planes. This reduced accessibility helped those forests stay intact.
• Land Use History: During the mid-20th century, Panama (like other Latin American countries) encouraged colonization of new lands for agriculture. In the 1950s–70s, government programs incentivized settlers to clear forests on the frontiers. Much of this effort targeted the Atlantic lowlands – the slogan was the “conquest of the Atlantic”. Forests in eastern Colón, Bocas del Toro, and eastern Panama were opened by new roads and subsequently logged or converted to pasture. However, these attempts often ran up against nature: The poor, highly leached soils under wet tropical forests meant that cleared lands on the Caribbean side quickly lost fertility and became unproductive^[8]. As a result, some cleared areas were later abandoned and have regrown as secondary forest. Meanwhile, the Pacific side, despite its longer history of use, retains some patches of dry tropical forest (in sheltered areas or where cattle ranching left woodlots). But overall, the Pacific landscape is far more human-dominated.
• Protected Areas Distribution: Most of Panama’s largest national parks (Darién, La Amistad, Chagres, Portobelo, etc.) and forest reserves are on the Caribbean side or central divide. The Pacific side has fewer large protected areas (an exception is Cerro Hoya National Park on the Azuero Peninsula, and some smaller reserves). This imbalance is partly because that’s where the remaining forests were when the conservation system was established. It means the Caribbean side had more of its forest formally safeguarded, contributing to its higher forest percentage today.

In essence, Panama’s Pacific half tells the story of deforestation, while the Caribbean half tells the story of still-intact rainforests and the hope for connectivity. The differences are evident not only in satellite maps but on the ground: driving across Panama one can literally see the landscape change from cattle pastures and dry forest remnants in the south to lush jungle in the north.

Looking Ahead: Challenges and Opportunities

The current conditions of Panama’s wilderness are at a crossroads. The country has managed to retain a remarkable amount of forest and even slow its deforestation rate, which bodes well for the future. Panama’s forests are healthier and more extensive than those of most neighbors (for comparison, Costa Rica has about 57% forest cover; Nicaragua ~44%; El Salvador under 25%). Furthermore, nearly half of Panama’s forests are old-growth primary forests^[3], which are invaluable for biodiversity. These facts put Panama in a “privileged position” regionally^[2]. If Panama can maintain and reconnect its forested areas, it could serve as the lynchpin of a Central American wilderness corridor and a flagship example of balancing development with conservation.

That said, significant challenges remain:

• Preventing Further Fragmentation: The most critical task is to prevent the remaining large forest blocks from shrinking or becoming isolated. Frontier deforestation in Darién, for instance, must be controlled. The temptation to finally drive a highway through the Darién Gap (to link with Colombia) continues to surface, but such a road could be disastrous, opening the floodgates to logging and settlement in an extremely sensitive area. Similarly, new infrastructure on the Caribbean side (e.g. road expansions or mining projects in Colón/Veraguas) needs careful environmental planning to avoid severing corridor routes.
• Restoring Connectivity: Bridging the current gaps will require active reforestation or natural regeneration in key linkages. Some initiatives are in motion – for example, conservation groups and local communities have discussed creating wildlife corridors in central Panama (around the Panama Canal watershed and further east). Since much of the land is privately owned, incentive programs (like payments for ecosystem services or ecotourism projects) might encourage landowners to let forests regrow or to establish forested corridors along rivers and ridges. Even narrow strips of forest along riparian zones can help wildlife move. Given that secondary forests in Panama can regrow relatively fast (and accumulate carbon quickly), a “regeneration” approach is feasible if land is set aside^[9].
• Climate Change and Disasters: As climate patterns shift, Panama’s ecosystems face new stresses (e.g. altered rainfall, more extreme droughts or storms). Keeping forests intact is part of the strategy to buffer these effects (forests stabilize soils, regulate water flow, and protect against floods). But climate change could also alter forest composition or make some regions more fire-prone (though Panama’s humid forests seldom burn naturally, extreme drought could increase risk). Thus, continuous monitoring of forest health is necessary. Notably, 2024 saw record global tropical forest loss largely due to fires in places like the Amazon^[10]. Panama has not experienced such fire-driven loss on a large scale, but preparedness is wise.
• Balancing Development: Panama is a rapidly developing country (thanks in part to canal revenues and commerce). Expanding agriculture, real estate, and infrastructure will continue to put pressure on wild lands. For instance, oil palm plantations, cattle ranching, and subsistence farming are drivers of deforestation in certain districts (the provinces of Veraguas, Coclé, and Darién were recently cited as having the highest forest loss)^[11]. Sustainable land-use planning is needed to concentrate development in already-cleared areas and spare remaining forests. Strengthening land tenure and enforcing environmental laws (e.g. against illegal logging) will be key. On the positive side, Panama’s government has committed to ambitious conservation goals – such as protecting 30% of its land and waters – and has created new environmental prosecutor offices to combat forest crimes^[2].

Panama’s natural heritage is exceptionally rich for its size – hosting portions of both North and South American flora and fauna. Its tropical forests shelter thousands of species, including many endemic and migratory species. For nature enthusiasts and scientists, Panama’s wilderness offers the chance to experience Central America’s most pristine rainforests (in Darién) and incredibly diverse mountain forests (in La Amistad). The fact that you can travel from mangrove swamps at sea level to cloud forests over 3,000 m elevation within a relatively short distance means Panama encompasses a huge variety of habitats in a small area.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the “health” of Panama’s wilderness is relatively good in the large protected tracts, but fair-to-poor in the fragmented central landscapes. The country still possesses extensive wild lands – about two-thirds of its area – and roughly half of that is primary forest, which is encouraging^[3]. Protecting the remaining contiguous forests, especially on the Caribbean side and in Darién, is paramount to retain viable ecosystems. Equally important is connecting the dots: re-establishing forested links where breaks exist. If Panama can close the gaps along the Caribbean corridor (from Costa Rica’s forests to Colombia’s Chocó rainforest), it would unlock the full potential of gene flow and wildlife movement across the Americas – essentially healing the “broken bridge”. Conservationists argue that focusing reforestation in this narrowest part of Mesoamerica yields outsized benefits, as it would reunite two continents’ biotas^[5].

There are reasons for optimism. Indigenous groups, government agencies, and NGOs are increasingly collaborating on forest conservation. Panama has even become one of the first countries to be carbon-negative, thanks to its intact forests, and is leveraging this status in international climate finance and conservation funding^[2]. Continued political will and community engagement will determine whether Panama’s wilderness remains robust. Should current positive trends continue, in twenty years we may see jaguars once again able to roam from the Talamanca forests of Costa Rica, through a re-greened central Panama, and down into the Darien and beyond. That vision – a fully reconnected wild corridor – would secure Panama’s legacy as the vital biological bridge of the Americas.

References

1. Forest Policy. (n.d.). Country risk profile: Panama. https://forestpolicy.org/risk-tool/country/panama
2. Panama Now Online. (2024, May 20). Panamanian forests: Attaining allies for conservation. https://panamanowonline.com/panamanian-forests-attaining-allies-for-conversation/
3. World Rainforests. (n.d.). Deforestation archive: Panama. https://worldrainforests.com/deforestation/archive/Panama.htm
4. Global Forest Watch. (2024). Panama country dashboard. https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/PAN/
5. Kaplan, S. (2023, July 11). Panama risks becoming a broken link in an intercontinental wildlife route. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/panama-risks-becoming-broken-link-in-intercontinental-wildlife-route/
6. De León, L. F., Semenov, G. A., Hernandez, D., & Rand, A. S. (2019). Identifying corridors of connectivity for an endemic bird species in Panama. Movement Ecology, 7(1), Article 23. https://movementecologyjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40462-019-0186-0
7. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Panama: Climate. https://www.britannica.com/place/Panama/Climate
8. Cultural Survival. (2019). A visual record of disappearing forests and disappearing peoples. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/visual-record-disappearing-forests-disappearing-peoples
9. León, L. F., et al. (2021). Map of central Panama study area showing historical forest loss (2016–2020). ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-central-Panama-study-area-showing-historical-forest-loss-between-2016-and-2020_fig1_357516463
10. Global Forest Review. (2024, August). Latest analysis of global deforestation trends. World Resources Institute. https://gfr.wri.org/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends
11. Newsroom Panama. (2024, August 20). Climate crisis: Panama loses more than 350,000 hectares of forests. https://newsroompanama.com/2024/08/20/climate-crisis-panama-loses-more-than-350000-hectares-of-forests/