Pharomachrus mocinno
Resplendent Quetzal

Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno): Natural History of a Cloud Forest Icon

Physical Description

The Resplendent Quetzal is often hailed as one of the world’s most beautiful birds – a medium-sized trogon with brilliantly iridescent plumage. Adult males measure about 36–40 cm in body length, but their spectacular upper tail-covert plumes form a flowing train that can add up to 60–70 cm, yielding a total length of over 100 cm in breeding season^[1]. Males are predominantly shining emerald-green on the head, chest, and back (with hues appearing golden or blue in different light) and have a vibrant crimson-red belly and breast. A soft, hair-like crest of upturned green feathers adorns the male’s head, and the wing coverts are elongated and similarly iridescent, overlapping the wing. The flight feathers are dark brown to black, and contrasting white panels on the undertail are visible in flight^[2]. Females are markedly less ornate – an example of sexual dimorphism. A female Quetzal lacks the long tail streamers and crest, and her overall colors are more subdued: she has green upperparts and chest, but a grey or dull brown tone on the lower chest transitioning to red on the lower belly (often a duller red than the male’s)^[2]. The female’s tail is much shorter and shows a bold black-and-white barring on the underside, and her bill is dark (grey-black) in contrast to the male’s bright yellow bill^[2]. Juveniles resemble females, with young males not yet having grown the long tail plumes.

Beyond its dazzling plumage, the Resplendent Quetzal exhibits several interesting physical adaptations. Like other trogons, it has unique heterodactyl feet (the first and second toes facing backward, the third and fourth forward) adapted for perching on branches in the forest canopy. Its flight is somewhat weak and undulating (see the video below); quetzals are not built for sustained long-distance flight but rather for short bursts among trees. The species has evolved special adaptations for its frugivorous diet. Notably, it lacks a well-developed crop, and its digestive tract is modified to handle large fruits with big seeds. The esophagus is highly elastic with muscular rings, enabling adults to swallow whole “avocado” fruits and later regurgitate the pits intact^[3]. The bird’s mandibles and even its clavicles are unusually flexible, allowing it to open its mouth wider than expected for its size – an adaptation for gulping down fruits nearly the width of its head^[3]. These morphological traits, along with a thin-walled digestive tract and symbiotic gut bacteria, help quetzals digest the pulp of lipid-rich Lauraceae fruits while expelling the seeds. This dietary specialization has shaped many aspects of the quetzal’s behavior and ecology, as described below.

Habitat

Resplendent Quetzals are birds of the montane tropical forests. They live primarily in the cool, moist cloud forests and other highland evergreen forests of Central America. Within these lush habitats, quetzals favor areas with dense, humid canopy but often near natural openings or broken forest (such as ravines, cliffs, or edges), which facilitate their foraging flights. A typical quetzal habitat is characterized by tall, mature trees – often giant oaks (Quercus) reaching 30–45 m – draped in epiphytes like mosses and orchids, forming a multi-layered canopy. In Costa Rica and Panama, for instance, quetzals inhabit upper montane cloud forests dominated by oak and laurel trees, and having a rich understory of fruiting shrubs. They often perch in the mid-canopy or subcanopy, remaining motionless among the mist and foliage. The presence of large old trees is critical, not only for perches and fruit but also for nesting (as dead trunks provide cavities). Quetzals are secondary cavity nesters – they require rotting trees or snags where woodpeckers or natural decay have created holes that the quetzals can enlarge for use as nest chambers^[4][5]. These birds do not excavate solid wood efficiently, since their beaks and claws are relatively weak. They rely on soft, decaying wood, and have been observed chiseling or enlarging pre-existing holes to suit their needs ^[5]. Such microhabitat requirements tie quetzals closely to well-preserved old-growth forest or advanced second-growth with abundant snags.

Resplendent quetzals can also accept man-made bird box nests if constructed and positioned properly. Mount Totumas ecolodge in the highlands of Western Panama, has had success housing a breeding pair of quetzals in a man-made bird box, in multiple breeding seasons.

In terms of elevation, Pharomachrus mocinno is generally found at 900–3,000 m above sea level, mostly in the upper part of that range. They are most common in cloud forests roughly between 1,400 and 2,300 m elevation, depending on latitude^[4]. In the northern parts of their range (Mexico and Guatemala), they occur in highland pine-oak and cloud forest zones, whereas in Costa Rica and Panama they occupy the Cordilleran oak forests and adjacent forests on both Caribbean and Pacific slopes. The quetzal’s use of habitat can shift seasonally: this species is known as an altitudinal migrant within its range. During certain times of year, especially the breeding season or when specific fruits are available, quetzals may move to slightly lower elevations or to more open parts of the forest. Classic studies in Costa Rica noted that quetzals migrate short distances downslope following the fruiting of laurel trees, then move back upslope when those resources are depleted^[6][7]. In cloud forests like Monteverde (Costa Rica), quetzals spend part of the year in the high, wet ridge-top forest and then descend into adjacent valleys or foothills when trees fruit elsewhere – essentially “chasing” fruit crops in different life zones^[7]. However, forest clearance in many areas has disrupted these seasonal movements, as lowland or mid-elevation forest corridors have vanished. Quetzals can sometimes use semi-cleared landscapes if large fruiting trees and forest patches remain, but they generally thrive only in extensive, unbroken highland forest. Habitat loss (especially the loss of old cavity-bearing trees) is a major threat to the species’ long-term survival^[1].

Range

The Resplendent Quetzal is endemic to Central America. Its range extends from southern Mexico, through Guatemala and Honduras, into Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama. Two subspecies are recognized, divided roughly by the Nicaragua–Costa Rica border. The northern subspecies P. m. mocinno is found from the Sierra Madre of Chiapas (extreme south Mexico) eastward through the highlands of Guatemala (especially the Sierra de las Minas, Alta Verapaz, and west to the Cuchumatanes), and patchily into Honduras, El Salvador, and northern Nicaragua^[2][8]. The southern subspecies P. m. costaricensis, slightly smaller with shorter tail coverts, inhabits the highlands of Costa Rica (Cordillera de Talamanca, Cordillera Central) and continues into western Panama (Chiriquí highlands and the Cordillera de Talamanca extending into Bocas del Toro)^[2]. In Panama the species’ range reaches as far east as the western edge of the Veraguas province, but it does not naturally occur in central or eastern Panama. Throughout this range, populations are fragmented in montane forest islands separated by lowland gaps. For example, in Honduras and El Salvador only small remnant populations persist in isolated cloud forest pockets (such as Monte Celaque in Honduras, or the Montecristo trijunction cloud forest on the El Salvador–Guatemala border). Many of these populations have declined or disappeared due to deforestation.

Food, Predators, and Prey

Diet and feeding: The Resplendent Quetzal is primarily frugivorous, with a strong specialization on fruits of the laurel family. Numerous studies have shown that wild avocados and related trees (family Lauraceae) make up the bulk of its diet. In cloud forests like Monteverde, quetzals feed on fruits from at least 12–18 different laurel species over the course of a year, and in total may utilize over 40 species of fruiting plants annually^[6]. Favored foods include small avocados (e.g. Ocotea and Persea species, often called “aguacatillo”) which are typically 1–3 cm in diameter drupes, as well as fruits of trees in the Magnoliaceae and Myrtaceae families, and others. The quetzal usually feeds by plucking fruit while hovering momentarily next to the foliage or by making quick sallies from a perch to grab fruit and return. Its broad gape allows it to swallow fruits whole; the pulp is digested and the large seed is later regurgitated. This makes the quetzal an important seed disperser – indeed a nickname is “gardener of the cloud forest” for its role in spreading laurel seeds^[5]. The timing of the quetzal’s breeding season is closely linked to the peak fruiting period of Lauraceae trees; when dozens of wild avocado species bear crops in late dry season, quetzals have abundant food to raise their young^[6]. Outside of fruiting peaks, quetzals will also eat other fleshy fruits (from trees like wild figs, palms, etc.) as available.

Although fruit is its staple, the Resplendent Quetzal supplements its diet with animal prey, especially during the breeding season. It has been documented catching a variety of creatures: insects (such as large beetles, katydids, and orthopterans), frogs, anole lizards, and snails are known prey items^[5]. Quetzals hunt in short sallies, swooping from a perch to snatch a insect in mid-air or to pounce on a lizard on the forest floor. They have even been observed tearing apart epiphyte clusters in search of insects or small amphibians. Generally, animal prey constitutes a minority of the adult quetzal’s diet and is thought to be eaten mainly to obtain protein and calcium. However, when raising chicks, the adults dramatically increase the proportion of animals they deliver to the nest. In an influential study of quetzal breeding ecology, Wheelwright (1983) noted that in the first 10 days after hatching, quetzal parents feed the hatchlings mostly insects and other animal matter, which provide critical protein for growth; after about two weeks, the chicks are fed a higher proportion of fruit as they get larger^[6]. This mixed diet for the young is often observed by researchers and local guides. (For example, the author of this article has observed quetzal parents bringing a “mix of wild avocados, winged insects, and small anole lizards” to the nestlings – a vivid anecdote that matches the published accounts of their diverse menu, pers. obs.) By the time they fledge, the young quetzals are proficient at handling fruit, and they continue to learn to capture live prey on their own.

Predators and threats: In the wild, adult quetzals have relatively few natural predators due to their canopy-dwelling habits and the difficulty of catching them in dense foliage. However, they are not immune. Large raptors that patrol cloud forests have been known to strike quetzals – for instance, the Ornate Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus ornatus) is a confirmed predator of adult quetzals^[4]. Other birds of prey (like certain hawks or forest-falcons) and possibly large owls may opportunistically take a quetzal if the opportunity arises. There is one documented case of an adult quetzal being depredated by a margay (a small arboreal wild cat, Leopardus wiedii) when it was roosting or brooding in a nest, demonstrating that arboreal mammals can also pose a danger^[3]. By far the greatest threat is to eggs and chicks, which suffer high rates of predation. Quetzal nests in hollow trees are vulnerable to a suite of nest predators. Research in Costa Rica found that the majority of nesting attempts fail due to predation, with over two-thirds of nests being raided in some studies^[3]. The long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), an agile tree-climbing carnivore, has been identified as a frequent predator of quetzal eggs and nestlings^[3]. Squirrels (such as the red-bellied squirrel Sciurus aureogaster in the north of the range, and related species elsewhere) will eagerly take eggs or chicks from cavities if they discover them, and quetzal parents have been observed vigorously defending nests from squirrel intruders ^[3][4]. Emerald Toucanets (Aulacorhynchus prasinus, a small toucan) are another significant threat – these colorful birds are themselves cavity nesters and will raid other birds’ nests for eggs; quetzal pairs have been seen chasing away toucanets that approached their nest tree^[3]. Likewise, flocks of jays (e.g. Brown Jays) may harass and steal eggs if given the chance. Other nest predators include snakes, which can climb into cavities (several snake species in Central America, like tree boas (Corallus hortulana) or rat snakes, could prey on nest contents), and even insect parasites like botfly larvae can infest nestlings. To counter these threats, quetzals have evolved very shy and secretive behavior at the nest – they often sit motionless and quiet for long periods and approach the nest cautiously. The bright red belly of the male is hidden when he perches, as he often positions himself so that only his green back faces outward, blending with the canopy^[3]. Despite such adaptations, nest predation remains a major cause of quetzal reproductive failure.

Reproduction

Breeding season: The quetzal’s breeding season is timed to late dry season and early wet season, varying slightly across its range. In southern Mexico and Guatemala, breeding typically occurs from March through May, whereas in Costa Rica and Panama it may extend from February into July^[4][8]. The onset of breeding coincides with the greatest abundance of ripe fruits (especially wild avocados) in the cloud forest, ensuring a food supply for nesting birds. As the breeding season approaches, adult males grow new tail-covert streamers (these magnificent feathers are molted and re-grown annually). The males also become more vocal, giving their haunting, flute-like advertising calls (often transcribed as kyoh kyoh or queeoo notes) to establish territories and attract females. Courtship involves both vocalizations and visual displays. A male quetzal will perform an aerial display in which he flies high above the canopy, then dives and twists down through the trees with his long emerald train undulating behind him – an impressive show meant to entice females and assert his fitness^[3][5]. If a female is interested, the pair may engage in chasing flights. Quetzals are socially monogamous within a breeding season, and often the same pair will reform in subsequent years if both survive^[2]. Once paired, they jointly patrol a territory (often a few hectares around the chosen nest site).

Nest sites: Resplendent Quetzals nest in tree cavities, usually high above the ground. They do not excavate fresh cavities like woodpeckers, but rather modify existing holes. A typical nest site is in a dead snag or a decaying trunk of a large tree, at a height of about 8–30 m above ground. In Guatemala, an early study found an average nest height of ~9.5 m 5, while in Costa Rica nest heights around 6–15 m are common^[4][7]. The birds prefer cavities in rotten wood where they can easily enlarge the entrance with their bills. Often they appropriate abandoned woodpecker holes (e.g. old Acorn Woodpecker cavities) and chip away bits of the soft wood to widen it – quetzals have been known to expand a 15 cm diameter woodpecker hole to an opening about 10 cm by 12 cm in size to accommodate themselves^[4]. Both male and female take turns pecking at the cavity to prepare it for nesting, tossing out wood chips. They do not carry in nest material; eggs are laid on the wood dust or debris at the bottom of the chamber. Suitable nest sites can be a limiting resource – quetzals depend on the presence of large, rotting trees, and in disturbed forest they may struggle to find nest holes. (Conservation programs in some areas have even started installing artificial nest boxes – essentially hollow logs or wooden boxes placed high in trees – which quetzals sometimes accept as substitutes when natural cavities are scarce.)

Eggs and incubation: The female quetzal lays a clutch of two eggs (occasionally only one, and rarely three). The eggs are pale blue in color, about 36–40 mm in length, with a slightly glossy sheen. Both parents share incubation duty in shifts that last several hours. Observations indicate a division of labor: typically the female incubates through the night, and the partners trade off during the day so that each gets feeding breaks^[2][4]. The male, despite his long tail, can enter the cavity; he reportedly folds his long tail feathers upward over his back to fit inside, sometimes leaving the tips sticking out of the entrance while he sits on the eggs^[5]. The incubation period lasts roughly 17–19 days until hatching^[8]. During this time the incubating bird will periodically turn the eggs and may sit very tight if it senses an intruder nearby (relying on camouflage). If disturbed, quetzals slip quietly off the nest to avoid drawing attention to the site.

Chick development: The chicks hatch naked and blind – typical altricial birds. They develop quickly on a high-protein diet. Both parents participate in brooding (keeping the chicks warm) and feeding them. For the first week or so after hatching, one parent almost always remains in the nest brooding, while the other forages; they swap frequently to take turns providing food^[2]. During this stage, the chicks are fed largely with insects and small animal prey, which are easier to digest for the very young (and provide critical nutrients). As the nestlings grow and become better able to regulate their body temperature (around 8–10 days old), the parents reduce constant brooding and may leave the chicks alone for short periods. The diet shifts increasingly toward regurgitated fruits mixed in with the occasional insect or lizard, especially as the chicks approach fledging^[6]. The nestling period (time from hatching until the young leave the nest) is about 23–31 days according to field data^[8]. By the time of fledging, the chicks are feathered (the juveniles sport a shorter tail and more female-like plumage). Interestingly, quetzal parents might attempt two broods in a single season if conditions allow: it has been observed that after a first brood fledges (say by late spring), the pair may locate a new cavity and lay a second clutch within weeks, extending breeding into early summer. This is not always the case, but some pairs in productive habitats have multiple nesting attempts in one season^[2]. In such cases, the female sometimes starts a second clutch while the male continues feeding the fledglings from the first – a strategy to maximize reproductive output. However, double brooding may be limited by food availability and the demands of molting; many pairs likely raise only one brood per year. After the breeding season concludes (by July or so), adult males will molt their splendid tail coverts, and both sexes resume a more solitary life until the next year.

Observing in the Wild

Encountering a Resplendent Quetzal in its misty forest home is high on many birdwatchers’ wish lists. Although the species can be elusive, knowing when and where to look greatly improves one’s chances. Timing is crucial – the best time to see quetzals is during the breeding season, when they are more vocal and active and when they often venture to forest edges to feed on fruiting trees. In Costa Rica, for example, the peak viewing season is typically February to May, extending into June in some areas, corresponding with their nesting period and the fruiting of wild avocados. Early mornings are ideal, as quetzals tend to be most active just after dawn. Observers should listen for the males’ resonant kyow whistles echoing through the forest; this call often betrays the presence of a territorial male. Patience and silence are important, as quetzals are shy and may sit motionless for long stretches. Finding a fruiting laurel tree is one of the surest ways to see quetzals – the birds may visit the same avocado tree repeatedly to feed, making brief flights in and out. A good tactic is to quietly stake out such a tree at dawn. During nesting, another remarkable sight is the male quetzal at the nest cavity; often his long tail coverts stick out of the hole, and watchers can glimpse the bright green and red plumage as he enters or leaves with food. It is essential, however, to keep a respectful distance from any nest to avoid disturbing the birds (local guides will usually enforce this).

Several locations in Mesoamerica have become famous for reliable quetzal sightings, often because they combine protected habitat with accessible trails and knowledgeable guides. Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in Costa Rica is one such destination. Here, during March and April, quetzals are frequently seen along forest trails where fruiting trees abound; the reserve’s rangers often know which trees the quetzals are visiting. The Canopy House ecolodge is a great place for visitors to stay, as it contains protected cloud forest habitat, bordering the Monteverde cloud forest reserve, and is a short drive from the Curi Cancha reserve, another great destination for viewing resplendent quetzals in the wild. The nearby communities even celebrate an annual Quetzal Festival. Another Costa Rican hotspot is San Gerardo de Dota, a valley on the Pacific slope of the Talamanca range. San Gerardo (near Los Quetzales National Park) is at about 2,200 m elevation and is dotted with wild avocado trees. Quetzals are commonly observed in this area, sometimes right around the lodges’ grounds at dawn, feeding in avocado trees. Local guides can often point out a quetzal within minutes, especially from February to June when several pairs nest in the area. In Panama, the highland forests of Chiriquí offer quetzal encounters. Mount Totumas Ecolodge and Cloud Forest Reserve in western Panama, a private reserve bordering La Amistad International Park, has become renowned for its quetzals – visitors there have a good chance to see them year-round, but especially during the breeding season (mid March through mid April is best), and the lodge has even installed quetzal nest boxes to support breeding (with some success). Hikes along Mount Totumas’s trails in the early morning often reward visitors with views of males calling from the canopy or performing display flights above the cloud forest. The Mount Totumas cloud forest reserve has many old growth trees and large dead trees, perfect for quetzal nests.

In Guatemala, the most famous place is the Biotopo del Quetzal (Mario Dary Reserve) near Purulhá in the Baja Verapaz department, and the adjacent private reserve called Ranchitos del Quetzal. This montane forest reserve was established specifically to protect the quetzal. Visitors who arrive at dawn and walk the reserve’s trails (or even sit quietly near the visitor center clearing) have a decent chance of spotting a quetzal gliding between mossy tree limbs. The guides at Ranchitos del Quetzal maintain fruit feeders (avocado halves) in the forest that sometimes attract quetzals, and they monitor nesting sites each year to help visitors see the birds without causing disturbance. Tips for observers: Wear muted clothing to blend into the forest, move slowly and quietly, and spend time where quetzals are known to feed or nest. A good pair of binoculars is essential to pick out the quetzal’s vibrant green amidst the greenery. Sometimes the easiest sign is the quetzal’s movement – the flash of red as it flies, or the silhouette of the long tail streaming behind a male in flight. However, the best advice is to visit a cloud forest reserve: 1. during the height of the nesting season (often March through mid April), and 2. hire a guide (They know the best places to look for quetzals, such as their nests and feeding trees, and also have incredible skill at spotting quetzals). With luck and persistence, one can witness the Resplendent Quetzal in all its glory, a truly unforgettable highlight of Central America’s wildlife.

FAQ

References

1. Skutch, A. F. (1944). Life History of the Quetzal. The Condor, 46(5), 213–235.
2. Oiseaux-Birds. (2020). Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) species account. Oiseaux.net — includes description and subspecies details.
3. Wheelwright, N. T. (1983). Fruits and the Ecology of Resplendent Quetzals. The Auk, 100(2), 286–301.
4. Bowes, A. L., & Allen, D. G. (1969). Biology and Conservation of the Quetzal. Biological Conservation, 1(4), 297–306.
5. LaBastille, A., Allen, D. G., & Durrell, L. W. (1972). Behavior and Feather Structure of the Quetzal. The Auk, 89(2), 339–348.
6. Solórzano, S., Castillo, S., Valverde, T., & Ávila, L. (2000). Quetzal Abundance in Relation to Fruit Availability in a Cloud Forest in Southeastern Mexico. Biotropica, 32(3), 523–532.
7. Siegfried, D. G., Linville, D. S., & Hille, D. C. (2010). Analysis of Nest Sites of the Resplendent Quetzal: Relationship between Nest and Snag Heights. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 122(3), 608–611.
8. BirdLife International. (2016). Species Factsheet: Pharomachrus mocinno (Resplendent Quetzal). (IUCN Red List Assessment and range description).